Engaging Black youth in depression and suicide prevention treatment within urban schools: study protocol for a randomized controlled pilot.

BACKGROUND: Depression continues to be an ongoing threat to adolescent well-being with Black adolescents being particularly vulnerable to greater burdens of depression as well as lower mental health service utilization. Black adolescents are likely to have untreated depression due to social network influences, varied perceptions of services and providers, or self-stigma associated with experiencing depressive symptoms. Furthermore, if or when treatment is initiated, low engagement and early termination are common. To address this gap, a trial is being conducted to preliminarily test the effectiveness of an engagement intervention targeting Black adolescents with depression in school mental health services in New York City. METHODS: A total of 60 Black middle and high school adolescents displaying depressive symptoms are equally randomized (based on school site) to the treatment arms. Both trial arms deliver Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A), a time-limited, evidence-based treatment for depression. Additionally, one arm pairs IPT-A with a brief, multi-level engagement intervention, the Making Connections Intervention (MCI), involving adolescents, caregivers, and clinicians. Outcomes of interest are group differences in depression and suicide ideation, adolescent and caregiver engagement, and mental health service use. DISCUSSION: This trial will serve as an efficacy assessment of the MCI among a sample of Black adolescent students with depressive symptoms. Clinical and implementation results will be used to inform future research to further test the MCI intervention in a larger sample. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered by ClinicalTrials.gov on May 3, 2019, identifier: NCT03940508.

Use, Potential Use, and Awareness of the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline by Level of Psychological Distress.

This cross-sectional study assesses variations in use, potential use, and awareness of the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline among people with varying levels of psychological distress.

The role of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness in passive suicide ideation among Latinx and Black youth.

INTRODUCTION: The interpersonal theory of suicide (IPTS) is used to evaluate suicide risk. Yet, it has not been sufficiently tested with ethnoracially minoritized youth. This study aimed to test whether thwarted belongingness (TB) and perceived burdensomeness (PB) were associated with passive suicide ideation (SI) among Latinx and Black youth. METHODS: Data were obtained from a cross-sectional study. Some youth participants were recruited from an ongoing NIMH study of depressed Black youth in schools (N = 20). The rest were participants in a supplemental study of non-depressed Latinx and Black youth in community agencies (N = 61). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between passive SI and the IPTS constructs. RESULTS: Most participants identified as male (63.5%) and Latinx (59.5%), mean age 15.23 (SD = 1.4). Only TB remained significant when adjusting for age and gender, even after adding a measure of depression symptoms as a covariate. Notably, the interaction term (TBXPB) was not significantly associated with increased odds of passive SI in this sample. CONCLUSION: These findings confirm the importance of examining the IPTS constructs and their relationship to passive SI in diverse populations. The relationship between TB and SI in Latinx and Black youth suggests it may be an important target for suicide prevention.

Profiles of Suicidal Ideation Among Black Male Adolescents: Examination of Individual and Socioecological Predictors.

OBJECTIVE: The current study utilized latent profile analysis to identify distinct profiles of suicidal ideation among Black male adolescents and compared profiles on socioecological determinants of suicide and psychological symptoms. METHOD: A sample of 457 Black male adolescents (mean age = 15.31, SD = 1.26) completed self-report measures of suicidal ideation, racial discrimination, community violence exposure, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. RESULTS: Results of the latent profile analysis revealed a three-profile model: a low ideation profile, with low levels of all forms of suicidal ideation; a general death ideation profile with elevated general thoughts of death and dying; and a high, concealed ideation profile with high levels on all suicidal ideation items, except communicating the ideation to others. ANOVAs revealed that levels of psychological symptoms were significantly different for each profile, with the high, concealed ideation profile showing the highest levels. The low ideation profile had significantly lower scores than the two other profiles on community violence exposure, but the other two profiles did not differ significantly from one another. Further, the general death ideation profile had significantly higher scores on racial discrimination than the other two profiles, but the other two profiles did not differ significantly from one another. CONCLUSIONS: The current study supports recent socio-cultural theories of suicidal ideation and behavior in Black youth and highlights the need for increased access to care and services for Black boys who are exposed to socioecological factors that heighten suicidal ideation.

Feasibility and Preliminary Impact of a Community-Based Intervention for Maternal PTSD and Parenting: Parenting-STAIR Pilot.

Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) impact emotional and physical well-being, social functioning, and parent-child relationship quality. The effect of parental trauma on parenting and child maltreatment is often overlooked by current child welfare (CW) services. The novel intervention, Parenting-STAIR, was created to address maternal mental health, parenting skills, and child well-being outcomes. Parenting-STAIR is a combination of Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) Narrative Therapy and Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE). This open pilot study aimed to examine the feasibility and preliminary impact of Parenting-STAIR in reducing maternal PTSD and increasing positive parenting skills for mothers and families involved in the child welfare system. Parenting-STAIR was delivered to 111 mothers receiving family preservation services in New York City. Of these, 70 completed treatment; statistical and clinically significant changes were observed for maternal PTSD and depression as well as in parenting stress, parenting skills, and child behaviors. These findings provide encouraging initial evidence for the feasibility and impact of this novel PTSD intervention. An evaluation of maltreatment recidivism is needed, as well as implementation of a randomized controlled trial to establish efficacy of the intervention.

Adolescent suicide attempts in the United States: When suicide ideation and suicide capability interact.

INTRODUCTION: Guided by the interpersonal theory of suicide, this study examined whether the relationship between level of suicide ideation and attempted suicide varies as a function of suicide capability. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were obtained from the 2017 and 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey in which 28,442 respondents were sampled. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to create a latent suicide capability variable. Structural equation modeling was used to test the moderating effects of suicide capability on the relationship between level of suicide ideation and attempted suicide, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, sadness/hopelessness, and the sampling design. RESULTS: Compared to adolescent with no reported ideation, those reporting single and dual ideation experienced increased odds of attempted suicide. The relationship between level of suicide ideation and attempted suicide significantly varied as a function of capability. While adolescents with dual suicide ideation experienced higher rates of attempted suicide at increasing levels of capability, faster rates of change of attempted suicide at increasing levels of capability were observed among those with single and no reported ideation. CONCLUSION: Capability may heighten the risk of suicide attempts among youth, suggesting that treatment efforts could be directed at reducing exposure to painful and provocative experiences associated with suicide behaviors.

Factors Associated with Distinct Patterns of Suicidal Thoughts, Suicide Plans, and Suicide Attempts Among US Adolescents.

The current study examined demographic, psychosocial, and substance use factors associated with distinct patterns of past 12-month suicide thoughts, plans, and attempts among adolescents drawn from a nationally representative sample of high schoolers. Data were from the 2015, 2017, and 2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Four mutually exclusive 12-month suicidal behavior patterns were identified: suicide thoughts only (pattern 1), suicide thoughts and plans without suicide attempt (pattern 2), suicide attempt with thoughts and/or plans (pattern 3), and suicide attempt without thoughts or plans (pattern 4). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine factors correlated with these distinct patterns. Psychosocial and substance use factors were modeled as independent predictors, controlling for demographic characteristics, as well as simultaneously to represent the potential for co-occurrence. The analytic sample included 7491 respondents. About 24% (n = 1734) of youth endorsed pattern 1, 38% (n = 2779) pattern 2, 35% (n = 2716) pattern 3, and 3% (n = 262) pattern 4. All psychosocial and substance use factors measured were individually associated with greater odds of suicide attempts with thoughts or plans (pattern 3) than patterns 1 or 2. Black and male youth were at greater odds of suicide attempts without thoughts or plans (pattern 4) than all other patterns. When modeled simultaneously, respondents who were bullied online, sad or hopeless, had a history of sexual violence, used cigarettes, and misused prescription opiates retained greater odds of suicide attempts with thoughts or plans (pattern 3) than patterns 1 or 2. Findings suggest screening for suicidal behaviors should include factors that differentiate between varying suicidal expressions and that may cue providers to intervene in the absence of suicide thoughts and plans.

Black Youth Suicide: Investigation of Current Trends and Precipitating Circumstances.

OBJECTIVE: Suicide among Black youth is a significant public health concern, yet research investigating the epidemiology of suicide in this population is limited. This study examines current trends and precipitating circumstances of suicide by sex and age group in Black youth 5 to 17 years of age, using 2 national databases. METHOD: Data from the Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) and the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) were used to investigate trends and precipitating circumstances of Black youth suicide from 2003 to 2017. We hypothesized suicide rates would increase over time for both sexes and all age groups (5-11, 12-14, and 15-17 years), and precipitating circumstances would differ by sex and age group. Trend analyses were conducted using Joinpoint regression software, version 4.8.0.01 (Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute). Sex and age group comparisons of characteristics and precipitating circumstances were conducted using standard univariate statistical tests. RESULTS: From 2003 to 2017, Black youth experienced a significant upward trend in suicide with the largest annual percentage change in the 15- to 17-year age group and among girls (4.9% and 6.6%, respectively). Mental health problems, relationship problems, interpersonal trauma and life stressors, and prior suicidal thoughts/behavior were the most common clinical characteristics and precipitating circumstances, with several varying by sex and age group. CONCLUSION: Increases in Black youth suicide calls for the prioritization of research aimed at identifying specific risk and protective factors as well as developmental mechanisms associated with Black youth suicidal behavior. To implement effective suicide prevention programming, understanding targets for intervention is necessary.

Adolescent social networks matter for suicidal trajectories: disparities across race/ethnicity, sex, sexual identity, and socioeconomic status.

BACKGROUND: Examining social networks, characterized by interpersonal interactions across family, peer, school, and neighborhoods, offer alternative explanations to suicidal behaviors and shape effective suicide prevention. This study examines adolescent social networks predicting suicide ideation and attempt trajectories transitioning to adulthood, while revealing differences across racial/ethnic, sex, sexual identity, and socioeconomic status. METHODS: Participants included 9421 high school students (Mage = 15.30 years; 54.58% females, baseline) from Waves I-IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, 1994-2008. Latent class growth analyses were conducted to identify suicide ideation and attempt trajectories. Multivariate multinomial logistic regressions examined the relationships between social network characteristics during adolescence and suicidal trajectories. Interaction terms between social networks and sociodemographic characteristics were included to test moderation effects. RESULTS: Three suicidal ideation trajectories (low-stable, high-decreasing, moderate-decreasing-increasing) and two suicide attempt trajectories (low-stable, moderate-decreasing) were identified. Greater family cohesion significantly reduced the probability of belonging to high-decreasing (Trajectory 2) and moderate-decreasing-increasing (Trajectory 3) suicidal ideation trajectories, and moderate-decreasing (Trajectory 2) suicide attempt trajectory. Race/ethnicity, sex, and sexual identity significantly moderated the associations between social networks (household size, peer network density, family cohesion, peer support, neighborhood support) and suicidal trajectories. CONCLUSIONS: Social networks during adolescence influenced the odds of belonging to distinct suicidal trajectories. Family cohesion protected youth from being in high-risk developmental courses of suicidal behaviors. Social networks, especially quality of interactions, may improve detecting adolescents and young adults at-risk for suicide behaviors. Network-based interventions are key to prevent suicidal behaviors over time and suicide intervention programming.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Depression Treatment for Caregivers Investigated by the US Child Welfare System.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether there are racial/ethnic differences in depression treatment for caregivers investigated by the US child welfare system. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used baseline data from the Second National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being, a nationally representative sample of children and caregivers investigated by US child welfare agencies (February 2008-April 2009). We included permanent caregivers who met criteria for major depression and had available covariate data (n = 908). In multivariable logistic regression models, we estimated the associations between caregiver race/ethnicity and past-year receipt of: any depression treatment, minimally adequate depression treatment, and depression treatment from 4 sectors (general medical, psychiatry, nonpsychiatry mental health, and human services). We controlled for clinical need and access variables according to the Institute of Medicine's definition of health care disparities. RESULTS: Black caregivers had the lowest rates of treatment receipt of any racial/ethnic group, with 42.2% receiving any depression treatment and 17.2% receiving minimally adequate depression treatment in the past year. In multivariable analyses controlling for clinical need and access variables, Black caregivers were less likely than White caregivers to receive any depression treatment (odds ratio [OR] = 0.49 [95% CI: 0.24-0.97]), minimally adequate depression treatment (OR = 0.37 [95% CI: 0.16-0.85]), and depression treatment from the general medical sector (OR = 0.40 [95% CI: 0.18-0.89]) in the past year (all P< .05). CONCLUSIONS: Future research should examine the underlying mechanisms of Black-White disparities in depression treatment for caregivers involved with the US child welfare system and develop targeted interventions to promote equitable mental health care for this highly vulnerable population.

Racial/Ethnic, Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Socioeconomic Disparities in Suicidal Trajectories and Mental Health Treatment Among Adolescents Transitioning to Young Adulthood in the USA: A Population-Based Cohort Study.

Suicide is the second leading cause of death for people aged 10-34 years old. Limited research has documented extant heterogeneities in suicide across the life course and among diverse sociodemographic groups. There is also limited research on the influences of mental health utilization on suicidal trajectories across the life course. This study aims to: (1) identify racial/ethnic, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectional differences in suicidal trajectories among adolescents transitioning to adulthood; and (2) examine influences of mental health service utilization on disparities in suicidal trajectories. The study included 9421 respondents (Mage = 14.99 [SD = 1.61]) from Waves I-IV National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1994-2008). Latent class growth analyses were used to identify trajectories of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Multivariate multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the influences of mental health treatment and sociodemographic characteristics on suicidal trajectories. Three suicidal ideation (low-stable, high-decreasing, moderate-decreasing-increasing) and two suicide attempt (low-stable, moderate-decreasing) trajectories were identified. Compared with the low-stable trajectories, the risks of being in high-decreasing suicidal ideation trajectories were higher among females (AOR = 1.45, 95% CI 1.01-2.13) and sexual minorities (AOR = 1.82, 95% CI 1.21-2.74). Sexual minorities (AOR = 2.63, 95% CI 1.69-4.08) and low-SES adolescents (AOR = 1.79, 95% CI 1.08-2.98) were more likely to be in the moderate-decreasing suicide attempt group. Mental health service utilization predicted engagement in high-risk suicidal trajectories. Sociodemographic disparities in suicidal trajectories initiate early and persist over time. Individuals in high-risk trajectories received mental health treatment during adolescence. Suicide prevention should target vulnerable subpopulations and mental health service utilization in the early stage.

Unpacking Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Associations between Neighborhood Disadvantage and Academic Achievement: Mediation of Future Orientation and Moderation of Parental Support.

Despite the extensive literature on the deleterious effects of perceived neighborhood disadvantage on academic achievement, there is a dearth of information on racial/ethnic differences in the underlying roles of future orientation and parental support that may mediate or moderate this association. Using data from 3618 students in grades 6-9 (50% female, Meanage = 12.9 [1.3], 6.99% Black, 10.39% Hispanic/Latino, 82.61% White) in two communities in North Carolina during 2009-2014 who completed the School Success Profile, a self-report social environmental assessment, this study conducted multiple group analyses across three racial/ethnic groups (Black, Hispanic/Latino, White), revealing that perceived neighborhood disadvantage was associated with lower future orientation, which in turn was related to poorer academic achievement. The mediating effects were stronger among Black youth compared to White and Hispanic/Latino adolescents. Adolescents with high parental support were minimally affected by perceived neighborhood disadvantage. The findings identify nuanced racial/ethnic disparities in perceived neighborhood influences on academic achievement and raise important intervention targets to promote academic achievement among disadvantaged subgroups.

Sexual Identity-Behavior Profiles and Suicide Outcomes Among Heterosexual, Lesbian, and Gay Sexually Active Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Adolescents' sexual behaviors can be incongruent with those assumed to align with their sexual identity. Identity-behavior profiles permit the characterization of youth who might remain undetected using a single-dimensional assessment of sexual orientation. This study examined suicide risks among four distinct sexual identity-behavior profiles of youth: heterosexual with other-sex partners only, heterosexual with any same-sex partners, lesbian or gay (LG) with same-sex partners only, and LG with any other-sex partners. METHOD: Data were analyzed from the 2017 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Participants' reported sex, sexual identity, and the sex of their sexual contacts were used to construct the identity-behavior profiles. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between identity-behavior profiles and suicide outcomes. RESULTS: Compared to heterosexual respondents with other-sex partners only, heterosexual respondents with any same-sex partners and LG respondents with same-sex partners only had greater odds of having a suicide plan; LG respondents with any other-sex partners were over seven times more likely to have suicidal thoughts and attempt suicide and 14 times more likely to have a suicide plan. CONCLUSIONS: Health and mental health providers can expand the identification of youth at risk for suicide by assessing both sexual identity and behavior.

Patterns of Healthcare Discrimination Among Transgender Help-Seekers.

INTRODUCTION: Affirmative health care is imperative to address health and mental health disparities faced by transgender communities. Yet, transgender help-seekers experience discrimination that precludes their access to and participation in care. This study uses latent class analysis to examine patterns of healthcare discrimination among transgender help-seekers. Predictors of class membership are investigated to identify subpopulations at highest risk for healthcare discrimination. METHODS: Data were obtained from the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey and analyzed in 2019. Ten healthcare experiences were included as latent class indicators. Latent class analysis and regression were performed in Mplus, version 8 to identify latent subgroups and examine the relationship between respondent characteristics and the latent classes. RESULTS: The final sample included 23,541 respondents. A 3-class model fit best: Class 1 experienced overt discrimination and interfaced with providers with limited trans-competence; Class 2 did not experience healthcare discrimination or report issues related to providers' trans-competence; and Class 3 did not experience discrimination but had providers with low trans-competence. Transmen and respondents who were out as trans to their providers and reported psychological distress, suicidal thoughts, and disabilities were more likely to be members of Class 1 or 3 than Class 2. CONCLUSIONS: Experiences of healthcare discrimination are not homogeneous across transgender help-seekers. Predictors of the latent classes indicated that transgender help-seekers holding an additional marginalized identity may be at higher risk for healthcare discrimination or care from providers with limited trans-competence. Targeted engagement and education interventions might improve these transgender help-seekers' access to and connections with care.

Trends of Suicidal Behaviors Among High School Students in the United States: 1991-2017.

OBJECTIVES: To determine if racial and ethnic subgroups of adolescents are at high risk for engagement in suicidal behaviors. METHODS: Using the nationally representative school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey from the years 1991 to 2017, we conducted logistic regression analyses to examine trends by different racial and ethnic groups, with each suicide indicator serving as a dichotomous outcome. Participants included 198 540 high school students. RESULTS: Across all sex and race and ethnic groups, there were significant linear decreases in self-reported suicidal ideation and suicide plans from 1991 to 2017. Female adolescents (odds ratio [OR], 0.98; P < .001) had significant decreases in attempts over time. Black adolescents had positive linear trends for suicide attempts among both boys (OR, 1.04; P < .001) and girls (OR, 1.02; P = .003). Black adolescent boys (OR, 1.04; P = .048) had a significant linear increase in injury by attempt. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that, over time, black youth have experienced an increase in suicide attempts, which is troubling because attempts are the most prominent risk factor associated with suicide death. For black boys, a significant increase in injury by attempt occurred, which suggests that black boys may be engaging in increasingly lethal means when attempting suicide. Examining trends of suicidal thoughts and behaviors over time by sex and race and ethnicity allow us to determine where to focus prevention and intervention efforts. Future research should examine the underlying reasons for these changes observed in US high school students.

A latent class analysis of health lifestyles and suicidal behaviors among US adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have documented the link between individual health behaviors and suicide, but little is known about the influence of health lifestyles on suicide among adolescents. This study aims to identify the unobserved patterns of health behaviors and to examine their associations with adolescent suicidal behaviors to inform screening of suicidality. METHODS: Data were derived from a nationally representative sample of adolescents (n = 14,506, ages 12-18, 50.9% female) in the national school-based 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Latent class analysis was performed based on 13 health behaviors related to diet (e.g., frequency of consuming breakfast, fruits/vegetables, soda), physical activity (frequencies of physical activity, sports team participation), sleep, and media use (TV/computers). Suicidal behaviors were measured by three dichotomized variables, including suicidal ideation, plan, and attempts. Multivariate logistic regressions were used to examine associations between identified classes and suicidal behaviors. RESULTS: Four classes of health lifestyles were identified. Class 1 (23.6%) consistently engaged in health-promoting behaviors, including eating breakfast daily, high intake of fruits/vegetables, physically active, and infrequent use of TV/computers. Class 2 (37.7%) had an irregular diet, moderate exercise, and high computer use. Class 3 (31.8%) had moderate diet, frequent exercise, and moderate sleep. Class 4 (6.9%) had the lowest engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Class 4 had higher odds of suicide plan than Class 1 (OR = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.10-2.05). Notably, Class 2 and 3 were less likely to attempt suicide than Class 1 (OR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.57-0.95 for Class 2; OR = 0.65, 95% CI = 0.48-0.89 for Class 3). LIMITATIONS: Due to the cross-sectional design, no causal inference can be drawn. CONCLUSIONS: Both Class 1 (consistent) and Class 4 (lowest) engagement in health-promoting behaviors were associated with increased suicidal behaviors. Suicide prevention efforts that examine both lifestyles are keys to early detection of suicidal ideation and plans, and prevention of suicide attempts.

The Influence of Treatment Engagement on Positive Outcomes in the Context of a School-Based Intervention for Students with Externalizing Behavior Problems.

We examined the stability of and cross-influences between externalizing behaviors and intervention engagement among children participating in a randomized clinical trial of an intervention for disruptive behavioral youth. Analyses also accounted for the influence of caregiver depression, family relationship quality, and sociodemographic factors (race, income) on the relationship between behaviors and intervention engagement. Analyses were based on 118 children participating in the Coping Power intervention. Composite variables were created to represent externalizing behaviors and intervention engagement constructs. Associations between these composite variables were examined over 24 treatment sessions. Findings indicated a regressive relationship among externalizing behaviors, i.e., baseline externalizing behaviors were positively associated with immediate follow-up behaviors. There were also dynamic relationships observed among engagement constructs. Notably, engagement with in-session activities during sessions 1-8 was positively associated with out-of-session activity engagement during the same treatment time period. Engagement with out-of-session activities during sessions 1-8 was positively associated with in-session activity engagement during sessions 9-16, indicating a complete mediation between early and middle in-session engagement through the mechanism of early out-of-session engagement. A crosslag relationship was observed: middle in-session engagement was negatively associated with externalizing behaviors at immediate follow-up. Finally, an interaction of race by income on immediate follow-up externalizing behaviors was observed, such that Black children's externalizing behaviors remain static regardless of income level while White children's behaviors decreased with higher income. Our findings support the contention that focusing on intervention engagement may be especially important in prevention interventions.

A Review of Treatments for Young Black Males Experiencing Depression.

The objective was to qualitatively examine the treatment effects of depression interventions on young, Black males (YBM) across treatment providers and settings via a review. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) seeking to ameliorate depressive symptomology in Black males ages 12-29 were eligible for inclusion. After review of 627 abstracts and 212 full-text articles, 12 studies were selected. These RCTs were organized into five categories based on the intervention method. We isolated only one study that targeted YBM exclusively. Additionally, only two treatment effect sizes for YBM were available from the data. While remaining RCTs did involve Black youth, disaggregated data based on race and gender were not reported. Overall, the lack of research specific to YBM prevented any strong conclusions about the treatment effects on depression for this population. Small sample size along with poor representation of YBM were trends in the selected studies that also posed an issue. Therefore, our review produced qualitative findings but failed to isolate any true effect size for YBM being treated for depression. Until more conclusive evidence exists, alternative strategies may need to be employed in order to find appropriate interventions for depressed YBM seeking mental health treatment.